    # KEHOME/knowledge/theory/Sowa/kr.html
    # Jan/28/2003

    #===========================================================#
    # book hierarchy					    #
    #   John F. Sowa, "Knowledge Representation:		    #
    #   Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations", #
    #   Brooks/Cole, 2000.					    #
    #===========================================================#

    kr is Knowledge Representation;
    kr isu book;
    kr has
    	author = John F. Sowa,
    	publisher = Brooks/Cole,
    	date = 2000;

    krhi is begin hierarchy;
    Knowledge Representation
    /   Preface
    # Chapter
    /   1. Logic
    /   2. Ontology
    /   3. Knowledge Representations
    /   4. Processes
    /   5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
    /   6. Knowledge Soup
    /   7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
    # Appendix
    /   A. Summary of Notations
    /   B. Sample Ontology
    /   C. Extended Example
    /   Answers to Selected Exercises
    /   Bibliography
    /   Name Index
    /   Subject Index
    /   Special Symbols

    #================================================#

    Preface
    /  logic, ontology, and computation
    /  exercises
    /  organization
    /  cast of characters

    1. Logic
    /  1.1. Historical Background
    /  1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic
    /  1.3. Varieties of Logic
    /  1.4. Names, Types, and Measures
    /  1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity

    2. Ontology
    /  2.1. Ontological Categories
    /  2.2. Philosophical Background
    /  2.3. Top-Level Categories
    /  2.4. Describing Physical Entities
    /  2.5. Defining Abstractions
    /  2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories
    /  2.7. Space and Time

    3. Knowledge Representations
    /  3.1. Knowledge Engineering
    /  3.2. Representing Structure in Frames
    /  3.3. Rules and Data
    /  3.4. Object-Oriented Systems
    /  3.5. Natural Language Semantics
    /  3.6. Levels of Representation

    4. Processes
    /  4.1. Times, Events, and Situations
    /  4.2. Classification of Processes
    /  4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories
    /  4.4. Concurrent Processes
    /  4.5. Computation
    /  4.6. Constraint Satisfaction
    /  4.7. Change

    5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
    /  5.1. Purpose
    /  5.2. Syntax of Contexts
    /  5.3. Semantics of Contexts
    /  5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts
    /  5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts
    /  5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts
    /  5.7. Agents

    6. Knowledge Soup
    /  6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance
    /  6.2. Limitations of Logic
    /  6.3. Fuzzy Logic
    /  6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic
    /  6.5. Theories, Models, and the World
    /  6.6. Semiotics

    7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
    /  7.1. Sharing Ontologies
    /  7.2. Conceptual Schema
    /  7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms
    /  7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations
    /  7.5. Language Patterns
    /  7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition

    A. Summary of Notations
    /  A.1. Predicate Calculus
    /  A.2. Conceptual Graphs
    /  A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format

    B. Sample Ontology
    /  B.1. Principles of Ontology
    /  B.2. Top-Level Categories
    /  B.3. Role and Relation Types
    /  B.4. Thematic Roles
    /  B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles

    C. Extended Example
    /  C.1. Hotel Reservation System
    /  C.2. Library Database
    /  C.3. ACE Vocabulary
    /  C.4. Translating ACE to Logic

    #================================================#

    1. Logic
    /  1.1. Historical Background
    //	terminology
    //	syllogisms
    //	Scholastic logic
    //	semantic networks
    //	automated reasoning
    //	mathematical logic
    //	T-box and A-box
    //	Boolean algebra
    //	truth tables
    //	Frege's Begriffsscrrift
    //	algebraic notation
    /  1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic
    //	propositional logic
    //	subject and predicate
    //	choice of predicates
    //	logic and ontology
    //	representing music
    //	existential-conjunctive logic
    //	definitions  # of music predicates (methods)
    /  1.3. Varieties of Logic
    ///	    syntax
    ///	    subsets
    ///	    proof theory
    ///	    model theory
    ///	    ontology
    ///	    metalanguage
    //	typed logic
    //	lambda calculus
    //	conceptual graphs  # ANSI standard
    //	KIF		   # ANSI standard
    ///	    forall
    ///	    exists
    //	modal logic
    //	higher-order logic
    //	metalanguage
    /  1.4. Names, Types, and Measures
    //	names and types
    //	higher-order types
    //	surrogates
    //	unique naming convention
    //	representing measures
    //	representing musical entities
    /  1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity
    ///	    vocabulary
    ///	    syntax
    ///	    semantics
    ///	    rules of inference
    //	semantics of propositional logic
    //	status of FOL
    //	relating various logics
    ///	    fewer axioms
    ///	    more natural translations
    ///	    more efficient computation
    /  Exercises

    2. Ontology
    /  2.1. Ontological Categories
    //	Quine's criterion
    //	microworlds
    //	Cyc categories
    /  2.2. Philosophical Background
    //	Aristotle's categories
    //	Kant's categories
    //	triads
    //	Peirce's categories
    //	Husserl's categories
    //	Whitehead's categories
    //	Heidegger's categories
    //	categories of emotions
    /  2.3. Top-Level Categories
    //	synthesis
    //	contrasts, distinctions, and categories
    //	continuants and occurrents
    ///	    continuant: enduring object with stable characteristics
    ///	    occurrent: process or event with unstable characteristics, only identified by space-time location
    //	viewpoint
    //	lattice of categories  # with examples
    ///	    Object (IPC) isa actuality (IP) considered as continuant (C)
    ///	    Process (IPO) isa actuality (IP) considered as occurrent (O)
    ///	    Schema (IAC) isa form (IA) with structure of continuant (C)
    ///	    Script (IAO) isa form (IA) with structure of occurrent (O)
    ///	    Juncture (RPC) isa prehension (RP) considered as continuant (C)
    ///	    Participation (RPO) isa prehension (RP) considered as occurrent (O)
    ///	    Description (RAC) isa proposition (RA) about continuant (C) relating schema (IAC)
    ///	    History (RAO) isa proposition (RA) about occurrent (O) relating script (IAO)
    ///	    Structure (MPC) isa nexus (MP) considered as continuant (C) for reason (MAC)
    ///	    Situation (MPO) isa nexus (MP) considered as occurrent (O) for purpose (MAO)
    ///	    Reason (MAC) isa intention (MA) of agent concerning continuant (C)
    ///	    Purpose (MAO) isa intention (MA) of agent determining interaction in situation (MPO)
    //	axioms and inferences
    ///	    location  # space-time
    ///	    mass and energy
    ///	    representation  # encoding
    ///	    causality
    ///	    independent  # 1 entity
    ///	    relative	 # 2 entities
    ///	    mediating	 # 3 or more entities
    ///	    continuant	 # time-independent predicate
    ///	    occurrent	 # time-dependent predicate
    /  2.4. Describing Physical Entities
    //	possible confusions
    //	intentionality
    //	phenomenon, role, and sign
    //	adjectives modifying nouns
    //	has test
    //	representational primitives
    ///	    coreference
    ///	    prehension
    ///	    containment
    //	classifying roles
    //	independence
    /  2.5. Defining Abstractions
    //	categories of forms
    //	monads
    //	spatial forms
    //	methods of definition
    //	hierarchies of theories
    ///	    transitivity
    ///	    reflexivity
    ///	    symmetry
    ///	    antisymmetry
    //	lattice operations
    /  2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories
    //	sets and types
    //	set theory
    //	criticisms of set theory
    ///	    ontological extravagance
    ///	    discrete elements
    ///	    paradoxes
    ///	    grotesque contortions
    ///	    nonconstructive definitions
    //	mereology
    ///	    simpler ontology
    ///	    continuity
    ///	    no paradoxes
    ///	    more natural definitions
    ///	    constructive definitions
    //	axioms for mereology
    ///	    sets
    ///	    aggregates
    ///	    proper part
    ///	    overlap
    ///	    supplement
    ///	    extensionality
    ///	    disjoint
    ///	    generalized union
    ///	    union
    ///	    intersection
    ///	    discrete
    ///	    continuous
    ///	    lumpy
    //	collective nouns
    /  2.7. Space and Time
    //	space without points
    //	sets at the metalevel
    //	time without instants
    //	Zeno's paradox
    //	time's arrow
    //	continuants and occurents
    //	identity conditions
    //	granularity
    //	search for primitives
    /  Exercises

    3. Knowledge Representations
    /  3.1. Knowledge Engineering
    //	informal specifications
    //	formalization
    //	principles of knowledge representation
    //	surrogate
    //	ontological commitments
    //	medium for efficient computation
    //	fragmentary theory of reasoning
    //	medium for human expression
    //	simulation and theorem proving
    //	persistance
    /  3.2. Representing Structure in Frames
    //	schemata
    //	frames
    //	mapping frames to logic
    //	frames and syllogisms
    //	multiple inheritance
    //	KL-ONE
    //	classification
    //	reasoning in frame systems
    //	definitional logics
    ///	    LOOM
    /  3.3. Rules and Data
    //	Microplanner, Prolog, and SQL
    //	plurals and sets
    //	rules and views
    //	logical foundations
    //	forward chaining
    //	SQL triggers
    //	implementing logic in practical systems
    /  3.4. Object-Oriented Systems
    //	O-O declarations
    //	mapping frames and rules to objects
    //	encapsulation
    //	logic-based O-O systems
    //	zooming in and zooming out
    //	translations to natural language
    //	objects and theories
    /  3.5. Natural Language Semantics
    //	background knowledge
    //	language analysis
    //	concepts and relations
    //	resolving ambiguities
    //	question answering
    //	inference
    /  3.6. Levels of Representation
    //	knowledge levels
    //	competence levels
    //	design levels
    //	meaning triangle
    //	metalevels
    //	mental processes
    /  Exercises

    4. Processes
    /  4.1. Times, Events, and Situations
    //	situations and events
    //	multiple occurrences
    //	adverbial modifiers
    //	actions as roles
    /  4.2. Classification of Processes
    ///	    continuous
    ///	    discrete
    ///	    figure 4.3. Types of Processes
    //	fluents
    //	basic distinction  # Erik Sandewall
    ///	    discrete or continuous
    ///	    linear or branching
    ///	    independent or ramified
    ///	    immediate or delayed
    ///	    sequential or concurrent
    ///	    predictable or surprising
    ///	    normal or equinormal
    ///	    flat or hierarchical
    ///	    timeless or time-bounded
    ///	    forgetful or memory-bound
    /  4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories
    ///	    flow chart
    ///	    finite-state machine
    ///	    Petri net
    //	mapping to logic
    //	branches and loops
    //	procedural or declarative
    /  4.4. Concurrent Processes
    //	flow of tokens
    //	timing diagram
    //	measuring time
    //	synchronizing processes
    //	theorems about Petri nets
    /  4.5. Computation
    //	dataflow diagrams
    //	computing with Petri nets
    //	message passing
    //	Linda
    /  4.6. Constraint Satisfaction
    //	generate and test
    //	cryptarithmetic problem
    //	optimization
    //	observations on the method
    //	metalevel heuristics
    /  4.7. Change
    //	situation calculus  # McCarthy
    ///	    cause(proposition)(situation)
    //	solving the frame problem
    //	Yale shooting problem
    //	distributed situations
    //	causal networks
    /  Exercises

    5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
    /  5.1. Purpose
    //	final causes
    //	complementarity
    //	contexts
    //	identity
    //	verbs as nexus
    //	defining verb senses
    /  5.2. Syntax of Contexts
    //	Peirce's contexts
    //	discourse representation theory
    //	resolving indexicals
    //	tranformation rules
    //	conversational implicatures
    /  5.3. Semantics of Contexts
    //	situations and propositions
    ///	    situation |= proposition
    //	McCarthy's contexts
    ///	    ist(context,proposition)
    //	meaningful situations
    //	meaning-preserving translations
    //	examples of meaning-preserving translations
    //	meaning in natural languages
    //	tinctured existential graphs
    //	classifying contexts
    /  5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts
    //	soundness and completeness
    //	import-export rules
    //	Peirce's rules of inference
    //	proof in existential graphs
    //	proof in algebraic notation
    //	cut-and-paste theorem
    //	generalized modus ponens
    //	exporting information from a context
    /  5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts
    //	Kripke's worlds
    //	criticism of possible worlds
    //	Hintikka's model sets
    //	Dunn's laws and Facts
    //	completing the pushout
    //	situations as pullbacks
    //	legislating modalities
    //	exporting modal information
    //	stratified metalevels
    //	example
    //	model theory in contexts
    /  5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts
    //	object instance
    //	object methods
    //	passing messages
    //	executing a procedure
    //	resulting state
    //	using multiple notations
    /  5.7. Agents
    //	psychology of agents
    //	artificial psyches
    //	consciousness
    //	reactive agents
    //	beliefs, desires, and intentions
    //	combining rational and reactive techniques
    /  Exercises

    6. Knowledge Soup
    /  6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance
    //	multiple uses of the same words
    //	vagueness in scientific language
    //	paradox of the heap
    //	liquids
    //	multiple perspectives
    //	intentional granularity
    /  6.2. Limitations of Logic
    //	case-based reasoning
    //	exceptions
    //	prototypes and definitions
    //	propositions and continuous models
    /  6.3. Fuzzy Logic
    //	fuzzy predicates and operators
    //	computing certainty factors
    //	context dependence
    //	fuzzy control systems
    //	analog control systems
    //	criticism of fuzzy logic
    ///	    incomplete generalizations
    ///	    abnormal conditions
    ///	    incomplete definitions
    ///	    conflicting defaults
    ///	    unanticipated applications
    //	quantifying continuity and vagueness
    /  6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic
    //	variation by discrete steps
    //	defaults in frames
    //	default logic
    //	abnormality
    //	open and closed worlds
    //	knowledge and belief
    //	conflicting defaults
    //	prioritized defaults
    //	computational complexity
    /  6.5. Theories, Models, and the World
    //	facts, fictions, and hypotheses
    //	finding the best theory
    //	navigating the lattice of theories
    ///	    contraction
    ///	    expansion
    ///	    analogy
    //	theory revision
    //	theories as explanations
    //	abduction
    //	combining knowledge sources
    /  6.6. Semiotics
    //	arbitrary nature of symbols
    //	classes of signs
    ///	    material trichotomy: qualisign, sinsign, legisign
    ///	    relational trichotomy: icon, index, symbol
    ///	    formal trichotomy: rheme, dicent sign, argument
    //	semiotic analysis
    //	applications of semiotics
    ///	    Chinese room
    ///	    symbolic and imagelike reasoning
    ///	    subsymbolic processes
    ///	    phenomenology
    /  Exercises

    7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
    /  7.1. Sharing Ontologies
    //	problems of aligning ontologies
    //	ontologies and axioms
    //	natural language and problem solving
    //	representations for problem solving
    //	elaboration tolerance
    /  7.2. Conceptual Schema
    //	integrated systems
    //	universal languages
    ///	    natural languages
    ///	    logic
    //	need for logic
    //	entity-relationship diagrams
    //	conceptual graphs and KIF
    //	quantifiers
    //	query graphs
    /  7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms
    //	trees
    //	parse tree
    //	models and metamodels
    //	unified modeling language
    /  7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations
    //	reorganizing a database
    //	answering queries
    //	mapping to natural language
    /  7.5. Language Patterns
    //	co-occurrence patterns
    //	verb patterns
    //	subject patterns
    //	object patterns
    //	but test
    //	business rules and types
    /  7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition
    //	conceptual schema modeling facilities
    //	varieties of domain knowledge
    //	mapping specifications to logic
    //	controlled natural language
    ///	    COBOL
    ///	    ACE
    ////		the,a,an
    ////		every,some
    ////		and,or,not,if,then
    ////		is,has
    ////		of,to,from,for,in
    ////		that,which,who
    ////		there
    ////		she
    ///	    CycL
    //	developing CSMF and MDM
    /  Exercises

    A. Summary of Notations
    /  A.1. Predicate Calculus
    //	predicates
    //	predicate logic
    //	formation rules
    //	rules of inference
    //	rules for quantifiers
    //	typed predicate logic
    //	extended quantifiers
    /  A.2. Conceptual Graphs
    //	definition A.2.1: conceptual graph
    //	definition A.2.2: concept
    //	definition A.2.3: conceptual relation
    //	definition A.2.4: lambda expression
    //	definition A.2.5: concept type
    //	definition A.2.6: relation type
    //	definition A.2.7: referent
    //	definition A.2.8: context
    //	definition A.2.9: coreference set
    //	definition A.2.10: knowledge base
    ///	    type hierarchy
    ///	    relation hierarchy
    ///	    catalog of individuals
    ///	    outermost context
    //	transformation rules
    /  A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format
    //	conceptual graphs: designed for direct mapping to/from natural language
    //	KIF: designed for direct mapping to/from computer systems

    B. Sample Ontology
    /  B.1. Principles of Ontology
    //	glossary
    /  B.2. Top-Level Categories
    /  B.3. Role and Relation Types
    /  B.4. Thematic Roles
    /  B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles

    C. Extended Example
    /  C.1. Hotel Reservation System
    /  C.2. Library Database
    /  C.3. ACE Vocabulary
    /  C.4. Translating ACE to Logic
    end hierarchy krhi;